Science teachers often use metaphors to teach science concepts. This project investigates how metaphoric learning works in the mind and in the brain, how such learning effects compare when using expert-created, self-generated, or artificial intelligence guided metaphors, and whether and how metaphoric learning improves memory retention of the learned concepts. This research will advance our understanding of how people learn more effectively, and how individual differences affect the learning process. The findings from this study will inform interventions to enhance learning and education throughout the lifespan, and its inclusion of high school students from Latinx and other backgrounds will broaden participation and training of diverse students from underrepresented minorities in science. The investigators will address the above mentioned questions with behavioral measures, artificial intelligence, brainwave (EEG), and brain imaging (fMRI) techniques. Study 1 will use behavioral paradigms to assess the effect of metaphoric reasoning on the learning and retention of science concepts over several days. Study 2 will contrast passive vs active learning of metaphor (expert-taught vs computer-aided self-generation), where semantic associates will be provided by artificial intelligence. Both study 1 and 2 assess learning outcomes with multi-faceted pre- and post- tests on student knowledge of target concepts (e.g., molecule) and test retention of learned knowledge by comparing concepts learned immediately before measurement vs. a day prior. Study 3 and 4 test hypotheses about the cognitive-neural mechanisms underlying concept learning, comparing the neural representations of science concepts before and after metaphoric and literal instructions using fMRI (Study 3) and in real-time tutor-student conversation using EEG (Study 4). Both study 3 and 4 will conduct cross-level analyses between neural and behavioral data. Alongside these four studies, the project will educate learners in research methodology through an EEG boot camp for university students, and training of high-school students to conduct research through seven visits that end with a science fair opportunity. This award reflects NSF's statutory mission and has been deemed worthy of support through evaluation using the Foundation's intellectual merit and broader impacts review criteria.